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Sustainable Energy, Second Edition

Choosing Among Options

By Jefferson W. Tester, Elisabeth M. Drake, Michael J. Driscoll, Michael W. Golay and William A. Peters

Overview

Human survival depends on a continuing supply of energy, but the need for ever-increasing amounts of it poses a dilemma: How can we find energy sources that are sustainable and ways to convert and utilize energy that are more efficient? This widely used textbook is designed for advanced undergraduate and graduate students as well as others who have an interest in exploring energy resource options and technologies with a view toward achieving sustainability on local, national, and global scales. It clearly presents the tradeoffs and uncertainties inherent in evaluating and choosing sound energy portfolios and provides a framework for assessing policy solutions.

The second edition examines the broader aspects of energy use, including resource estimation, environmental effects, and economic evaluations; reviews the main energy sources of today and tomorrow, from fossil fuels and nuclear power to biomass, hydropower, and solar energy; treats energy carriers and energy storage, transmission, and distribution; addresses end-use patterns in the transportation, industrial, and building sectors; and considers synergistic complex systems. This new edition also offers updated statistical data and references; a new chapter on the complex interactions among energy, water, and land use; expanded coverage of renewable energy; and new color illustrations. Sustainable Energy addresses the challenges of making responsible energy choices for a more sustainable future.

About the Authors

Jefferson W. Tester is Croll Professor of Sustainable Energy Systems at Cornell University.

Elisabeth M. Drake is Emeritus Researcher at the MIT Energy Initiative.

Michael J. Driscoll is Professor Emeritus of Nuclear Science and Engineering at MIT.

Michael W. Golay is Professor of Nuclear Science and Engineering at MIT.

William A. Peters is Executive Director of the Institute for Soldier Nanotechnologies at MIT.

Sustainable Energy
Sustainable Energy
Choosing Among Options
Jefferson W. Tester, Elisabeth M. Drake, Michael J. Driscoll, Michael W. Golay, and William A. Peters
The MIT Press
Cambridge, Massachusetts
London, England
©
2012
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form by any electronic or mechanical means (including photocopying, recording, or information storage and retrieval) without permission in writing from the publisher.
MIT Press books may be purchased at special quantity discounts for business or sales promotional use. For information, please email special_sales@mitpress.mit.edu or write to Special Sales Department, The MIT Press, 55 Hayward Street, Cambridge, MA 02142.
This book was set in Times Roman by Toppan Best-set Premedia Limited. Printed and bound in the United States of America.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Sustainable energy : choosing among options / Jefferson W. Tester...[et al.]. — 2nd ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-262-01747-3 (hardcover : alk. paper) 1. Renewable energy sources. I. Tester, Jefferson W.
TJ808.S85 2012
333.79'4—dc23
2011049223
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Contents
Preface to the First Edition
Acknowledgments from the First Edition
Preface to the Second Edition
Acknowledgments for the Second Edition
1 Sustainable Energy: The Engine of Sustainable Development
1.1 Sustainable Energy: The Engine of Sustainable Development
1.2 The Energy Portfolio
1.3 Defining Energy: Scientific and Engineering Foundations
1.4 Aspects of Energy Production and Consumption
1.5 National and Global Patterns of Energy Supply and Utilization
1.6 Environmental Effects of Energy: Gaining Understanding
1.7 Confronting the Energy-Prosperity-Environmental Dilemma: Sustainability and Alternative Proposals
1.8 Mathematical Representations of Sustainability
1.9 The Rest of This Book
Problems
References
2 Estimation and Evaluation of Energy Resources
2.1 Units of Measurement: Energy and Power
2.2 Comparison of Different Forms of Energy
2.3 The Energy Life Cycle
2.4 Estimation and Valuation of Fossil Mineral Fuels, Especially Petroleum
2.4.1 Asking the right questions and avoiding the unanswerable ones
2.4.2 Perspectives from mineral geology
2.4.3 Two interpretations of hydrocarbon fuel economics
2.4.4 Categories of reserves
2.4.5 Forecasting mineral fuel prices and supplies
2.4.6 Geopolitical factors and energy supply “crises”
2.5 Estimation and Valuation of Nuclear Fuel Resources
2.6 Estimation and Valuation of Renewable Energy Resources
2.6.1 Introduction and historical notes
2.6.2 Renewable energy resource assessment
2.6.3 Environmental impacts
2.6.4 Technology development and deployment
2.6.5 The importance of storage
2.6.6 Connecting renewables to hydrogen
2.6.7 The future of renewable energy
2.6.8 Additional resources
2.7 Lessons for Sustainable Development
2.8 Summary and Conclusions
Problems
References
3 Technical Performance: Allowability, Efficiency, Production Rates
3.1 The Relation of Technical Performance to Sustainability
3.2 An Introduction to Methods of Thermodynamic Analysis
3.2.1 Allowability, efficiency, and the Second Law
3.2.2 More about entropy
3.2.3 Analysis of ideal (Carnot) heat engines
3.2.4 Analysis of real-world (irreversible) heat engines
3.3 The Importance of Rate Processes in Energy Conversion
3.4 Chemical Rate Processes
3.5 The Physical Transport of Heat
3.5.1 Foundations for quantitative analysis
3.5.2 Thermal conduction
3.5.3 Convective heat transfer
3.5.4 Radiative heat transmission
3.5.5 Heat transfer by tandem mechanisms
3.6 Energy Requirements for Gas Separation Processes
3.7 Use and Abuse of Time Scales
3.8 Energy Resources and Energy Conversion: Fertile Common Ground
Problems
References
4 Local, Regional, and Global Environmental Effects of Energy
4.1 How Energy Systems Interact with the Environment
4.1.1 Known and potential environmental threats
4.1.2 Origin of harmful agents
4.1.3 Length and time scales for environmental impacts
4.2 Adverse Environmental Effects over Local and Regional Length Scales
4.2.1 Ambient air pollution
4.2.2 Adulteration of soil, water, and indoor air
4.2.3 Transport and transformation of air, ground, and water contamination
4.3 Global Climate Change: Environmental Consequences over Planetary Length Scales
4.3.1 Introduction
4.3.2 Basic science of the greenhouse effect
4.3.3 Energy and the greenhouse effect
4.3.4 Greenhouse consequences: Consensus, unknowns, misconceptions
4.3.5 Technological and policy response strategies: Evolutionary and revolutionary
4.4 Attribution of Environmental Damage to Energy Utilization
4.4.1 Diagnosing receptor jeopardy and injury
4.4.2 Source identification
4.4.3 Risk and uncertainty
4.4.4 Simulation modeling to estimate environmental externality costs
4.5 Methods of Environmental Protection
4.5.1 Energy and the environment as an ensemble of coupled complex systems
4.5.2 Earth system ecology as a working paradigm
4.5.3 Public policy instruments
4.5.4 Technological remedies
4.6 Environmental Benefits of Energy
4.6.1 Pollution prevention and environmental restoration
4.6.2 Social and economic foundations for environmental stewardship
4.7 Implications for Sustainable Energy
4.7.1 Environmental footprints as sustainability metrics
4.7.2 The unusual challenge of global climate change
Appendix: Lessons from SO
2
Problems
References
5 Project Economic Evaluation
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Time Value of Money Mechanics
5.2.1 Basic aspects
5.2.2 Application to a typical cash-flow scenario
5.2.3 Derivation of relations
5.2.4 Pitfalls, errors, and ambiguities
5.3 Current- versus Constant-Dollar Comparisons
5.4 Simple Payback
5.5 Economy of Scale and Learning Curve
5.6 Allowing for Uncertainty
5.6.1 Overview
5.6.2 Analytic uncertainty propagation
5.6.3 The Monte Carlo method
5.6.4 Decision tree method
5.7 Accounting for Externalities
5.8 Energy Accounting
5.9 Modeling beyond the Project Level
5.10 Summary
Appendix: Derivation of Relations for Levelized Cost
Problems
References
Websites of Interest
6 Energy Systems and Sustainability Metrics
6.1 Introduction and Historical Notes
6.2 Energy from a Systems Perspective
6.3 Systems Analysis Approaches
6.3.1 Life-cycle analysis
6.3.2 Simulation models
6.3.3 Risk-based models
6.4 Measures of Sustainability
6.4.1 General indicators of sustainability
6.4.2 Categories of indicators
6.5 Drivers of Societal Change
6.6 Some General Principles of Sustainable Development
Problems
References
Websites of Interest
7 Energy, Water, and Land Use
7.1 Linkages between Energy, Water, and Land Use
7.2 Major Systems, Interactions, and Trends
7.3 Major Planetary Cycles
7.3.1 Water cycle
7.3.2 Carbon cycle
7.3.3 Nitrogen cycle
7.3.4 Climate cycles
7.4 Overview of Land-Use Issues
7.4.1 Land-use patterns
7.4.2 Human development
7.4.3 Agriculture and forestry
7.4.4 Monitoring land-use changes
7.5 Overview of Ocean-Use Issues
7.5.1 Physical characteristics of the oceans
7.5.2 Food chains
7.5.3 Fisheries and aquaculture
7.5.4 Monitoring ocean changes
7.6 Implications for Sustainable Energy
Problems
References
Websites of Interest
8 Fossil Fuels and Fossil Energy
8.1 Introduction
8.1.1 Definition and types of fossil fuels
8.1.2 Historical and current contributions of fossil fuels to human progress
8.1.3 Sustainability: Challenges and opportunities
8.2 The Fossil-Fuel Resource Base
8.2.1 How long will fossil fuels last?
8.2.2 “Unconventional” naturally occurring fossil fuels
8.2.3 Fossil resources and sustainability
8.3 Harvesting Energy and Energy Products from Fossil Fuels
8.3.1 Exploration, discovery, and extraction of fuels
8.3.2 Fuel storage and transportation
8.3.3 Fuel conversion
8.3.4 Fuel combustion
8.3.5 Direct generation of electricity: Fuel cells
8.3.6 Manufacture of chemicals and other products
8.4 Environmental Impacts
8.4.1 Pollutant sources and remedies: The fuel itself
8.4.2 Pollutant sources and remedies: Combustion pathologies
8.4.3 Pollutant sources and remedies: Carbon management
8.5 Geopolitical and Sociological Factors
8.5.1 Globalization of fossil energy sources
8.5.2 Equitable access, revenue scaffolds,
American Graffiti
8.6 Economics of Fossil Energy
8.7 Some Principles for Evaluating Fossil and Other Energy Technology Options
8.8 Emerging Technologies
8.9 Conclusion: Why Are Fossil Fuels Important to Sustainable Energy?
Problems
References
9 Nuclear Power
9.1 Nuclear History
9.2 Physics
9.3 Nuclear Reactors
9.4 Burning and Breeding
9.5 Nuclear Power Economics
9.6 Nuclear Power Plant Accidents
9.7 Reactor Safety
9.8 Nuclear Reactor Technologies
9.8.1 Light-water reactors (LWR)
9.8.2 RBMK reactors
9.8.3 Heavy-water-cooled technologies
9.8.4 Gas-cooled reactor technologies
9.8.5 Liquid-metal reactor technologies
9.9 Actinide Burning
9.10 Advanced Reactors
9.11 Nuclear Power Fuel Resources
9.12 Fuel Cycle
9.12.1 Uranium mining
9.12.2 Uranium milling
9.12.3 Conversion
9.12.4 Enrichment
9.12.5 Fuel fabrication
9.12.6 Spent fuel
9.12.7 Reprocessing
9.12.8 High-level wastes (HLW) disposal
9.13 Fusion Energy
9.13.1 Introduction
9.13.2 Why is fusion more difficult than fission?
9.13.3 Magnetic fusion energy
9.13.4 Inertial fusion energy
9.13.5 Prospects for the future
9.14 Future Prospects for Nuclear Power
Problems
References
Additional Resources
10 Biomass Energy
10.1 Characterizing the Biomass Resource
10.1.1 Defining biomass
10.1.2 Renewability indices and biomass resources
10.2 Biomass Relevance to Energy Production
10.2.1 Utilization options
10.2.2 Advantages and disadvantages
10.2.3 More on resources
10.3 Chemical and Physical Properties Relevant to Energy Production
10.4 Biofuels Production: Policy Incentives
10.5 Thermal Conversion of Biomass
10.5.1 Biomass to electricity
10.5.2 Biomass to fuels
10.6 Bioconversion
10.6.1 Introduction
10.6.2 Biogas
10.6.3 Fermentation ethanol from corn and cellulosic biomass
10.6.4 Synfuels from biomass gasification
10.7 Environmental Issues
10.8 Economics
10.9 Research and Development Opportunities
10.10 Disruptive Technology
10.11 Summary
Problems
References
Websites of Interest
11 Geothermal Energy
11.1 Characterization of Geothermal Resource Types
11.1.1 Definition in general
11.1.2 Natural hydrothermal systems
11.1.3 Geopressured systems
11.1.4 Hot dry rock (enhanced geothermal systems)
11.1.5 Magma
11.1.6 Ultra-low-grade systems
11.1.7 Markets for geothermal energy
11.2 Geothermal Resource Size and Distribution
11.2.1 Overall framework and terminology
11.2.2 Quality issues
11.2.3 Resource base and reserve estimates
11.3 Practical Operation and Equipment for Recovering Energy
11.3.1 Drilling and field development
11.3.2 Reservoir fluid production
11.3.3 Nonelectric, direct-heat utilization
11.3.4 Electric power generation
11.3.5 Equipment
11.3.6 Power-cycle performance
11.4 Sustainability Attributes
11.4.1 Reservoir lifetime issues
11.4.2 Environmental impacts
11.4.3 Dispatchable heat and power delivery
11.4.4 Suitability for developing countries
11.4.5 Potential for CO
2
11.5 Status of Geothermal Technology Today
11.5.1 Hydrothermal
11.5.2 Advanced systems
11.6 Competing in Today’s Energy Markets
11.7 Research and Development Advances Needed
11.8 Potential for the Long Term
Problems
References
Websites of Interest
12 Hydropower
12.1 Overview of Hydropower
12.2 Hydropower Resource Assessment
12.3 Basic Energy Conversion Principles
12.4 Conversion Equipment and Civil Engineering Operations
12.4.1 Civil engineering aspects of dam construction and waterway management
12.4.2 Turbines as energy converters
12.5 Sustainability Attributes
12.6 Status of Hydropower Technology Today
12.6.1 Economic issues
12.6.2 Potential for growth
12.6.3 Advanced technology needs
Problems
References
Websites of Interest
13 Solar Energy
13.1 General Characteristics of Solar Energy
13.2 Resource Assessment
13.3 Passive and Active Solar Thermal Energy for Buildings
13.3.1 Motivation and general issues
13.3.2 Passive systems
13.3.3 Active systems
13.3.4 Economic and policy issues
13.4 Solar Thermal Electric Systems: Concentrating Solar Power (CSP)
13.4.1 Fundamentals and options
13.4.2 Power tower: Central receiver systems
13.4.3 Parabolic troughs
13.4.4 Dish-engine systems
13.4.5 Current status and future potential of CSP
13.5 Solar Photovoltaic (PV) Systems
13.5.1 Solid-state physical chemistry fundamentals
13.5.2 Performance limits and design options
13.5.3 Silica-based systems (crystalline and amorphous)
13.5.4 Copper indium diselenide (CIS)
13.5.5 Cadmium telluride (CdTe)
13.5.6 Current status and future potential of PV
13.6 Sustainability Attributes
13.7 Summary and Prognosis
Problems
References
Websites of Interest
14 Ocean Wave, Tide, Current, and Thermal Energy Conversion
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Energy from the Tides and Currents
14.2.1 Impoundment-type tidal
14.2.2 Current-powered systems, tidal and otherwise
14.3 Energy from the Waves: Overview
14.4 Energy from Temperature Differences
14.4.1 Overview
14.4.2 Performance limits
14.4.3 OTEC technology
14.5 Economic Prospects
14.6 Environmental and Sustainability Considerations
14.7 The Ocean as an Externalities Sink
14.8 Current Status and Future Prospects
Appendix: Constants and Conversion Factors
Problems
References
Websites of Interest
15 Wind Energy
15.1 Introduction and Historical Notes
15.1.1 Introduction
15.1.2 Historical notes
15.2 Wind Resources
15.2.1 Wind quality
15.2.2 Variation of wind speed with elevation
15.2.3 Air density
15.2.4 Maximum wind-turbine efficiency: The Betz limit
15.3 Wind Machinery and Generating Systems
15.3.1 Overview
15.3.2 Rotor blade assembly
15.3.3 Tower
15.3.4 Nacelle components
15.3.5 Balance-of-station subsystems
15.3.6 System design challenges
15.4 Wind-Turbine Rating
15.5 Wind-Power Economics
15.6 Measures of Sustainability
15.6.1 Net energy analysis
15.6.2 Cost of externalities
15.6.3 Environmental impact of wind power
15.7 Current Status and Future Prospects
Appendix: Conversion Factors Relevant to Wind Power
Problems
References
Websites of Interest
16 Energy Carriers: Electric Power, Hydrogen Fuel, Other?
16.1 Introduction and Historical Perspectives
16.1.1 Growth of the electric generation industry
16.1.2 Life-cycle tracking of electric energy uses
16.1.3 Overall efficiency of primary energy usage
16.2 Electricity as an Energy Carrier
16.2.1 Electric energy
16.2.2 Centralized energy generation
16.2.3 Electric power generation
16.2.4 Environmental effects of electricity production
16.2.5 Siting requirements for power plants
16.2.6 Electricity economics
16.3 Hydrogen as an Energy Carrier
16.3.1 Hydrogen production
16.3.2 Hydrogen safety
16.3.3 Hydrogen storage and distribution
16.3.4 Future opportunities
16.4 Sustainability Issues
Problems
References
Websites of Interest
17 Energy Management: Storage, Transportation, and Distribution
17.1 Overview of Energy Management Systems
17.2 Connected Efficiencies and Energy Chains
17.3 Modes of Energy Storage
17.3.1 General characteristics
17.3.2 Energy storage technologies
17.4 Energy Transmission
17.4.1 General characteristics of energy transmission systems
17.4.2 Oil transport
17.4.3 Natural gas transport
17.4.4 Coal transport
17.4.5 Electric power transmission
17.5 Energy Distribution Systems
17.5.1 General characteristics of central versus distributed systems
17.5.2 Combined heat and power opportunities
17.5.3 Applications to renewable energy systems and hybrids
17.6 Ways of Organizing the Electric Economy
17.6.1 Demand-side management (DSM) and distributed generation
17.6.2 Electricity transmission and distribution and economic deregulation
17.6.3 An example of electric industry planning using multiattribute assessment tools
17.6.4 The need for more dynamic utilization of transmission and distribution capacity
17.7 Energy Market Impacts on Electricity Generation Options
17.8 Sustainability Attributes
17.8.1 Improved resource utilization
17.8.2 Environmental, safety, and health concerns
17.8.3 Economic and operational attributes
17.9 Opportunities for Advancement of Sustainable Energy Infrastructures
Problems
References
Websites of Interest
18 Transportation Services
18.1 Introduction and Historical Perspectives
18.2 Elements of the Transportation System
18.3 Transportation Fuels and the Fuel Cycle
18.4 Personal Vehicles
18.4.1 Historical perspectives
18.4.2 Looking forward
18.5 Life-Cycle Comparison of Vehicle Alternatives for Passenger Road Transport
18.6 Freight Vehicles
18.7 Public Transit, Interurban, and Intercontinental Transport
18.8 Motorization Trends
18.9 Sustainability Issues
Problems
References
Websites of Interest
19 Industrial Energy Usage
19.1 Introduction and Historical Perspectives
19.2 Life-Cycle Analysis and Design for Sustainability
19.3 Metals Industries
19.4 Cement and Lime Industries
19.5 Chemical Industries
19.6 Forest Products and Agriculture
19.7 Waste Management Industries
19.8 Sustainability Issues
Problems
References
Websites of Interest
20 Commercial and Residential Buildings
20.1 Introduction and Historical Perspectives
20.2 Life-Cycle Analysis
20.3 Residential Buildings
20.3.1 Design
20.3.2 Efficiency
20.4 Commercial Buildings
20.4.1 Design
20.4.2 Efficiency
20.5 Indoor Air Quality
20.6 Sustainability Issues
Problems
References
Websites of Interest
21 Synergistic Complex Systems
21.1 Introduction and Historical Notes
21.2 The Complex Systems View
21.2.1 Expert panels
21.2.2 Partial informational models
21.2.3 Decision analysis techniques
21.2.4 Negotiation
21.2.5 How are decisions really made?
21.3 Some Case Studies
21.3.1
Beyond the Limits
21.3.2
Which World?
21.3.3 MIT Joint Program on the Science and Policy of Global Change: Integrated Global System Model
21.3.4 C-ROADS climate policy model
21.4 Transitional Pathways
21.5 The Challenge to Society
Problems
References
Websites of Interest
22 Choosing among Options
Conversion Factors
List of Acronyms
Index

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Sustainable Energy, Second Edition

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